18 In the early 21st century, new targets for disease control and eradication, the expansion of philanthropic efforts to make expensive new vaccines affordable for the world's children, and promising results for novel techniques have stimulated research on vaccine delivery that avoids N-S and may be dosage sparing. Other drawbacks of N-S include needlestick injuries to health care workers, 14, 15 needle-phobia and discomfort for patients facing increasingly crowded immunization schedules, 16, 17 and the costs and complexity of safe disposal of sharps in the medical waste stream. Regrettably, aseptic practice was ignored in many developing countries, 10, 11 and by nonmedical-intravenous-drug users everywhere, 12 leading to widespread iatrogenic and self-inflicted disease transmission during that era once decried as the Injection Century. With acceptance of the germ theory and resulting sterilization of medical equipment by the early 20th century, 9 and with mass production of needles and glass (later plastic) syringes by mid century, hypodermic injection became the norm for convenient, accurate, and certain administration of most vaccines and many drugs. Jenner by broadening his predecessor's term-vaccination-to mean the administration of immunizing agents for various diseases, not just smallpox. Pasteur used a Pravaz syringe to inoculate sheep in the famed controlled challenge experiment demonstrating protection against anthrax, after which he honored Dr. 2 Variolation was supplanted by safer cutaneous application of material from cowpox lesions, the method of “vaccination” known in the 18th century and first published by Edward Jenner.Īfter 15th-century experiments with hypodermic injection, 3 the introduction of the needle and syringe (N-S) in the mid-19th century by Pravaz, 4, 5 Rynd, 6 and Wood 7 began a new era in medicine. 1 The cutaneous route for such variolation involved breaking the skin with a sharp instrument, and it was used in India perhaps as early as in China, but it was not documented until the 16th century. Conclusions: Despite some limitations mostly embedded in the concept of ‘model’, this study allows scholars to reduce uncertainties when locating municipalities in which to conduct local-scale experiments.The earliest known route of vaccination was respiratory, by intranasal insufflation of powdered scab material containing variola virus from smallpox patients, reportedly practiced in China as early as the 10th century ad (see Chapters 1 and 32). Discussion: Forest-based initiatives that are running in the preselected municipalities can be both further improved and diversified in a targeted way. ![]() Results: (P1) Valuable municipalities include those covered by both coniferous and deciduous forests (P2–3) Municipalities achieving the highest potential respiratory benefits, in both particular and dynamic terms, have been mapped. QGIS software has been adopted to geographically reference the results obtained. Municipalities have been ranked by considering the surface area covered by forest types whose dominant tree species achieve above-average potential respiratory benefits. Tree species have been rated “1” when they satisfy one or more of 58 potential respiratory benefits. The resulting overall potentials of tree species have been assessed by adopting the well-rooted Hollerith distance (HD) model. Three analysis models rating tree species by their potential respiratory benefits in ‘holistic-general’ (P1), ‘particular’ (P2), and ‘dynamic” terms (P3) have been outlined. The literature reviews dealing with potential respiratory benefits of biogenic organic compounds (BVOCs) emitted by trees, published within the ‘forest therapy’ research field, have been adopted. The natural resource based view (NRBV), postulating the strategic role played by natural resources in achieving both above-average (thus ‘valuable’) and ‘concentrated’ (thus ‘rare’ among competitors) performance, has been adopted. ![]() Methods: The autonomous Region of Friuli Venezia Giulia in Italy has been assumed as a research area. This study aims to compare municipalities by considering the absence/presence of tree species generating ‘above threshold’ potential respiratory benefits. Despite this, forests have never been considered according to such potential. Background: Several studies have suggested the possibility of obtaining specific respiratory benefits by experiencing forests and other natural resources.
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